Transmission	Apprenticeship	Developmental	Nurturing	Social Reform
Foundational Philosophy	Objectivism		Constructivism	Long term, hard, persistent efforts to achieve come from the heart, not the head	Teachers ideals are necessary for a better society Teacher’s ideals are appropriate for all The ultimate goal of teaching is to bring about social change
Primary goal	Master the content, then educate the learner		Develop increasingly complex and sophisticated ways of reasoning and problem solving within a content area or field of practice	To help people feel good about their achievements and to believe in themselves as learners	Purpose is to give encourage students to take a critical stance and give them power to take social action to improve their lives
Characteristics	Most common secondary and higher				No single uniform characteristics Few and far between
Teacher	substantial commitment to content or subject matter		Value learners’ prior knowledge and understand how they think about the content before presenting new material Adapt their knowledge to learner’s ways of understanding	Provide a great deal of encouragement and support, along with clear expectations and reasonable goals for each learner	Leader or a rebel Clear and organized in their delivery of content Work hard to respect and promote the dignity and self-efficacy of their learners Encourage students to consider the ways in which they as learners of a discipline they are studying, are positioned and constructed in particular discourses of practice
Views on Learners	adult learners are containers	An outsider using education and training as a means of entry to practice, and learning a new discourse of action and identity	Learners are computers Learners use what they know to filter and interpret new information Learners construct their understanding	Learners are the “Vulnerable Self” filled with wounds from previous schooling
Views on Learning	Learning is additive	Learning is facilitated when people work on authentic tasks in real settings of application or practice Learning is more than the building of cognitive structures or the development of skilled competence… It is the transformation of learner’s identity that occurs as they adopt the language, values, and practices of a specific social group Learning is a process of enculturation Knowledge is socially constructed through participation in a social group The product of learning is of two kinds: competence and social identity in relation to the community of practice.	Learning is constructed	People become motivated and productive learners when they are working on issues or problems without fear of failure. Achievement is only the means by which people are to improve their self-confidence and self-esteem as learners	Common practices are examined Texts and practices are interrogated Rethink our deepest assumptions and convictions
Views on Teaching	Focus on the internal structure of the content Requires proper delivery and proper receptivity Take learners through a set of tasks that lead to mastery of the content	Responsible to reveal the inner workings of skilled performance Responsible to see that learners work on tasks that are meaningful and relevant to the community of practice Responsible to read their learners’ point of entry and capability in relation to the work Offer less direction and give more responsibility to the learner as learner moves from dependent to independent worker.	Find out how the learner is “programmed”, how they think, what they believe in relationship to the content or work. Goal is to change the way learners think rather than increase their store of knowledge	Primary responsibility is to find a balance between caring and challenging Promote a climate of caring and trust, Help people set reasonable but challenging goals Support effort and achievement	Bring learners into diverse communities of practice
Expectations on Learners	Learn the content in its authorized or legitimate form		Let them figure it out for themselves
Strategies	spend lots of time in preparation, assuring mastery over content, specify objectives, well organized lectures, use of class time, clarify misunderstandings, answer questions, correct errors, provide reviews, summarize what has been presented, direct to appropriate resources, set high standards	Zone of development = zone of instruction Break the performance or work into tasks and sequences that progress from simple and marginal, to complex and central to all work of the community	Use effective questioning that challenges learners to move from relatively simple to more complex forms of thinking Us examples that are meaningful to learners	Getting to know people, consistently listening and responding to emotional as well as intellectual needs, and working with permeable role boundaries, for example teaching vs counselling	No single uniform set of strategies Ask probing questions, use powerful metaphors that help learners bridge between prior knowledge and new concepts Classroom discussion is centered on “by whom” and “for what purpose”. Subject matter interrogated for its complicity in the malaise of society.
Individual differences	vary the pace
Feedback	directed at errors point out where learners can improve		Less telling means more learning
Assessment	locate learning within a hierarchy of knowledge or skill to be learned. Develop objective means of assessing learning	Progress is marked by their skilled performance and \by their movement from the novice or beginner to the experience member of the practicing community	Assessments consistent with complex reasoning	Often considers individual growth or progress, as well s absolute achievement Encourages learners to see that is doing them no favour to be excused from taking evaluations Helped to prepare for assessment, usually in small approximations that are both challenging and achievable, then encouraged to take the test
Problems and/or Difficulties	difficult to work with people that do not understand the logic of their content difficulty thinking of examples or problems from the ‘real world When challenged return to the content Spend too much time talking	Difficult transition making the change from performing while learners watch, to scaffolding the work according to learners’ zone of development. Finding the right balance takes time and patience Finding relevant and authentic tasks for classroom instruction Matching learners’ capabilities with tasks that represent legitimate work Issues of safety and quality intrude Difficulty putting craft knowledge into words	Difficulty developing practice and assessment task that are consistent with complex reasoning. Focus on recall, recognition, correct answers, rather than on reflection, analysis and reasoning	Seen as exempting learners from external standards or examinations. Fraught with difficulties: Evaluation is difficult Keeping permeable the boundaries between teacher and counsellor Colleagues criticism Suggests lower standards (Quite the contrary, they make reasonable demands and set high expectations on the learner Balance between caring and challenging difficult to achieve and stustain
Focus	Content rather than learners		Learners	Learners